What makes an adjective?

Full abstract:

Properties are encoded in a multitude of ways cross-linguistically. However, for the prototypical function of properties (e.g. Croft 2000, 2001), there is little consistent cross-linguistic evidence for a word class centred on ‘property’ (however, cf. Dixon 2004). In Bumthang, a Tibeto-Burman language from central Bhutan, we find various strategies for encoding properties, including the use of adjectives, stative verbs and ideophones (each a demonstrably distinct word class). This classification is complicated by the clear derivational status of many of the adjectives (in many cases without independently occurring roots); and presence of strict syntactic and semantic restrictions on the use of stative verbs in attributive roles. This presentation will explicate the different strategies used in Bumthang to denote properties and discuss the ways in which such a system could arise. The main strategy used with attribution is adjectival modification. The Adjective class in Bumthang is largely populated by words which are clearly morphologically derived from stative verbs (1) and which can then modify nouns attributively with few restrictions (2). The remaining underived adjectives are either loans such as chetpo ‘grand’ (< Tibetan) or words which require an explicit relative clause to be used attributively (3).

(1) Ruk khak-sa.

curry bitter-IMPF

‘The curry is bitter.’

(2) Ruk khak-po nak-sa.

curry bitter-NMLZR COP-IMPF

‘It’s a bitter curry.’

(3) Ruk kacan nak-khan Lekden-i-gi wen.

curry good COP-REL Lekden-GEN-PN EQ.COP

‘The good curry is Lekden’s.’

When encoding property modification predicatively, there are two approaches: verbal and non-verbal. The main non-verbal structure used is a copula in conjunction with an adjective (4, 5). The verbal strategy is the use of Stative Verbs, which are syntactically simple but semantically complex. Stative Verbs imply an inherent experiencer or comparison when used as a main predicate.

(4) Tshae yak jikpa-la jak-pa-la nak-sa.

this yak big-FOC fat-NMLZR-FOC COP-IMPF

‘This big yak is fat.’

(5) Tshali jikpa-la wen-za.

orange big-FOC EQ.COP-IMPF

‘The orange is big.’

(6) Lekden-i kher-sang bu-khan momo ngam-za-ra.

Lekden-ERG make-IRR IND.Q-REL dumplings delicious-IMPF-EVID

‘The dumplings Lekden said he’d make will be delicious.’

(7) Sirti=wa nyonde reng-za.

red=COMP black long-IMPF

‘The black one is longer than the red.’

Property modification is claimed to be a universal cross-linguistic function. However, there is no one way to encode it across languages, or even within a single language itself. Bumthang data allows us to gain an insight into unusual ways of encoding property modification as well as a glimpse into how newer adjective classes co-exist amongst older verbal and nominal modification strategies.